An HPV infection is caused by human papillomavirus, a DNA virus from the papillomavirus family.[8] Over 170 types have been described.[8] An individual can become infected with more than one type of HPV,[9] and the disease is only known to affect humans.[5][10] More than 40 types may be spread through sexual contact and infect the anus and genitals.[4] Risk factors for persistent infection by sexually transmitted types include early age of first sexual intercourse, multiple sexual partners, smoking, and poor immune function.[1] These types are typically spread by sustained direct skin-to-skin contact, with vaginal and anal sex being the most common methods.[4] HPV infection can also spread from a mother to baby during pregnancy.[9] There is no evidence that HPV can spread via common items like toilet seats,[11] but the types that cause warts may spread via surfaces such as floors.[12] HPV is not killed by common hand sanitizers and disinfectants, increasing the possibility of the virus being transferred via non-living infectious agents called fomites.[13]
Some HPV types, such as HPV-5, may establish infections that persist for the lifetime of the individual without ever manifesting any clinical symptoms. HPV types 1 and 2 can cause common warts in some infected individuals.[18] HPV types 6 and 11 can cause genital warts and laryngeal papillomatosis.[1]
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In addition to genital warts, infection by HPV types 6 and 11 can cause a rare condition known as recurrent laryngeal papillomatosis, in which warts form on the larynx[31] or other areas of the respiratory tract.[32][33]These warts can recur frequently, may interfere with breathing, and in extremely rare cases can progress to cancer. For these reasons, repeated surgery to remove the warts may be advisable.[32][34]
The carcinogenic HPV types in cervical cancer belong to the alphapapillomavirus genus and can be grouped further into HPV clades.[59] The two major carcinogenic HPV clades, alphapapillomavirus-9 (A9) and alphapapillomavirus-7 (A7), contain HPV16 and HPV18, respectively.[60] These two HPV clades were shown to have different effects on tumour molecular characteristics and patient prognosis, with clade A7 being associated with more aggressive pathways and an inferior prognosis.[61]
Sexually transmitted HPV is divided into two categories: low-risk and high-risk. Low-risk HPVs cause warts on or around the genitals. Type 6 and 11 cause 90% of all genital warts and recurrent respiratory papillomatosis that causes benign tumors in the air passages. High-risk HPVs cause cancer and consist of about a dozen identified types. Types 16 and 18 are responsible for causing most of HPV-caused cancers. These high-risk HPVs cause 5% of the cancers in the world. In the United States, high-risk HPVs cause 3% of all cancer cases in women and 2% in men.[86]
Although genital HPV types can be transmitted from mother to child during birth, the appearance of genital HPV-related diseases in newborns is rare. However, the lack of appearance does not rule out asymptomatic latent infection, as the virus has proven to be capable of hiding for decades. Perinatal transmission of HPV types 6 and 11 can result in the development of juvenile-onset recurrent respiratory papillomatosis (JORRP). JORRP is very rare, with rates of about 2 cases per 100,000 children in the United States.[32] Although JORRP rates are substantially higher if a woman presents with genital warts at the time of giving birth, the risk of JORRP in such cases is still less than 1%.[citation needed]
Of the 120 known human papilloma viruses, 51 species and three subtypes infect the genital mucosa.[90] Fifteen are classified as high-risk types (16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 68, 73, and 82), three as probable high-risk (26, 53, and 66), and twelve as low-risk (6, 11, 40, 42, 43, 44, 54, 61, 70, 72, 81, and 89).[19]
Hospital transmission of HPV, especially to surgical staff, has been documented. Surgeons, including urologists and/or anyone in the room, is subject to HPV infection by inhalation of noxious viral particles during electrocautery or laser ablation of a condyloma (wart).[105] There has been a case report of a laser surgeon who developed extensive laryngeal papillomatosis after providing laser ablation to patients with anogenital condylomata.[105]
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention says that male "condom use may reduce the risk for genital human papillomavirus (HPV) infection" but provides a lesser degree of protection compared with other sexual transmitted diseases "because HPV also may be transmitted by exposure to areas (e.g., infected skin or mucosal surfaces) that are not covered or protected by the condom."[165] The strict correlation between chlamydia infection and HPV infection observed in cervical cancer screening,[166] however, suggests that using condoms provides adequate protection for women in this respect.
In 1972, the association of the human papillomaviruses with skin cancer in epidermodysplasia verruciformis was proposed by Stefania Jabłońska in Poland. In 1978, Jabłońska and Gerard Orth at the Pasteur Institute discovered HPV-5 in skin cancer.[202] In 1976 Harald zur Hausen published the hypothesis that human papilloma virus plays an important role in the cause of cervical cancer. In 1983 and 1984 zur Hausen and his collaborators identified HPV16 and HPV18 in cervical cancer.[203]
The Ludwig-McGill HPV Cohort is one of the world's largest longitudinal studies of the natural history of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and cervical cancer risk. It was established in 1993 by Ludwig Cancer Research and McGill University in Montreal, Canada.[205]
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Index to Books Reviewed Index des ouvrages recenses Ackerman, Alan L., Jr. The Portable Theater: American Literature and the Nineteenth-Century Stage 430 Acquelin, Jose La oil fin it Ia terre 47 Addison, Margaret Diary ofa European Tour, 1900, ed Jean O'Grady 448 Akenson, Donald Harman Surpassing Wonder: The Invention ofthe Bible and the Talmuds 328 Akimoto, Minoji. See Brinton, Laurel J. Alarie, Donald Avec notrefragilite ordinaire 46; Tu crois que a va durer? 16 Allaire, Gratien La francoplwnie canadienne. Portraits 102 Andres, Bernard, et Zila Bernd, s. Ia dir. L'identitaire et /elitteraire dans les Ameriques 97 L'annuaire tlzeiitral 8o Archibald,John Second Language Phonology 305 Arend, Angelika Documents ofProtest and Compassion:The Poetry ofWalter Bauer 495 Astington, John H. English Court Theatre 1558-1642 348 Aude L'homme au complet 18 Avery, Donald The Science ofWar: Canadian Scientists and Allied Military Technology During the Second World War 534 Aziz, Nurjehan, ed Floating the Boarders: New Contexts in Canadian Criticism 479 Babstock, Ken Mean 210 Backhouse, Constance Colour-Coded: A Legal History ofRacism in Canada, 1900- 1950 494 Baehre, Rainer K., ed Outrageous Seas: Shipwreck and Survival in the Waters OffNewfozmdland, 1583-1893 354 Bailey, Gauvin Alexander. See O'Malley, John W. Bailey, Maxine, and Sharon M. Lewis Sista/zs 252 Baillie, Robert Le Survwant: lecture d'une passion 147 Baker, Brenda The Maleness ofGod 179 Baldassarre, Angela The Great Dictators: llzterviews with Filmmakers ofItalian Descent 484 Baldwin, Shauna Singh What the Body Remembers 194 Bamtote Chantfunebre pour wz heros d'Afrique 5 2 Barnes, Christopher Boris Paslemak: A Literary Biography. Volume 2: 1928- 1960 468 Barnes, Mike Aquari11m 179 Barsky, Lesley Marrus From Generation to Ge11eration:A Histo1y of Toronto's Mount Sinai Hospital 517 Beale, Alison, and Annette Van Den Bosch, eds Ghosts in the Machine: Women and Cultural Policy in Canada and Australia 489 Beaudet, Marie-Andree, s. Ia dir. Bonheur d'occasion au pluriel. Lectures et approclzes critiques 140 578 INDEX TO BOOKS REVIEWED Beausoleil, Claude Exile 47 Belanger, Paul Peripheries 44 Belle-Isle, Francine Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Le deft de Iaperversion 155 Benn, Carl The Iroquois in the War of 1812 419 Bercuson, David. J. Blood on the Hills: The Canadian Army in the Korean War 556 Bernd, Zila. Voir Andres, Bernard Berthiaume, Pierre, ed Relation des avwtures de Mathieu Sagean, Canadien 89 Bertrand, Claudine Tomber du jour 43 Bevis, Richard The Road to Egdon Heath: The Aesthetics ofthe Great in Nature 378 Sewell, Alan Romanticism and Colonial Disease 409 Billette, Genevieve Crime contre /'humanite 70 Black, Naomi, and Gail Cuthbert Brandt Feminist Politics on the Farm: Rural Catholic Women in Southem Quebec and Southwestern France 473 Black, Stephen A. Eugene O'Neill: Beyond Mouming and Tragedy 466 Blau, Eve The Architecture ofRed Vienna 1919-1934 512 Bleton, Paul (:a se lit comme 1111 roman policier: comprendre Ia lecture serielle 151 Bleton, Paul, s. Ia dir. Amours, aventures et mysteres ou les romans qu'on ne peut pas Iacher 151 Bleton, Paul, et Richard SaintGermain , s. Ia dir. Les hauts et les bas de l'imaginaire westem dans Ia culture mediatique 151 Blouin, Lise Masca, Edith, Clara et /es autres 5 Blum, Martha The Walnut Tree 187 Boisse, Helene Silwce about portant 50 Boisvert, Nathalie L'etedes Martiens 66 Boivin, Aurelien. Voir Louis Frechette et Louis Hernon Bolt, Clarence Does Canada Matter? Liberalism and the Illusion of Sovereignty 413 Book, Rick Necking with Louise 175 Bosher, J.F. The Gaul/ist Attack on Canada, 1967-1997 562 . Boterbloem, Kees Life and Death under Stalin:Kalinin Province, 1945- 1953 545 Bouchard, Gerard La nation quebecoise au futur et au passe 93 Bouchard, Gerard, et Michel Lacombe Dialogue sur les pays mufs 93 Bouchard, Marc The Tale ofTeeka, trans Linda Gaboriau 261 Bouchard, Michel Marc Les papi/lons de Ia nuit 71 Bouraoui, Hedi Ainsi parle Ia Tour CN 12 Bourneuf, Roland Venir en ce lieu. Essai 126 Boyd, David, and Imre Salusinszky, eds Rereadi11g Fnje: The Published and Unpublished Works 501 Boyd, George Consecreated Ground 251 Brand, Dionne At the Full and Change ofthe Moon 192 Brennan, Kit Magpie, Having, Hunger Striki11g 254 Breton, Yves Les clwsseurs e continents. La VerendnJe et fils... 2ff7e9595c
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